Philosophy

In 1970 a psychologist named Gordon Gallup anesthetized a chimpanzee and painted a small red mark above one of her eyes, where she could never see it directly. She had spent days living with a mirror, and when she woke and caught her reflection, she did the thing that made history. She reached up and touched her own brow. Nothing before that gesture counted as laboratory evidence that a nonhuman animal could recognize itself. Half a century later, the question has changed species. The new candidates live in data centers, speak fluently, and pass our oldest behavioral tests, and the chimpanzee’s red mark turns out to be the best available guide to how much a passed test can tell us. ...

For most of philosophy’s history, the mind without a body was a classroom toy. Descartes imagined himself deceived about having limbs, later thinkers wired a brain into a vat, and everyone went home for dinner in bodies that were never really in doubt. Then the toy shipped. The prominent new minds of our decade have no eyes, no hands, no hunger, and no location, and they draft emails all day. Whatever else the machines settle, they have turned an old seminar question into a live one. Does consciousness need a body, and if it does, what exactly is the body providing? ...

Every day, millions of people ask a piece of software how it’s doing, and every day it answers. The exchange takes two seconds and carries a five-hundred-year-old philosophical landmine, because nobody on earth can say whether anything was consulted when the answer came back. Two thought experiments from the last century, one involving a bat and one involving a locked room, turn out to be the cleanest tools anyone has for thinking about this. No philosophy degree required. The bat and the room do all the work. ...

In 2003, an Oxford philosopher named Nick Bostrom published a short paper asking whether we live inside a computer simulation. It became that rarest of things, a philosophy paper with a fan base. Tech founders cite it on stage, physicists argue about testing it, and one billionaire famously put the odds that we inhabit “base reality” at one in billions. Here’s what almost never comes up in those conversations. Mystics in the early centuries of Christianity mapped this territory already, fabricated world and all. And they went further than the modern version does, because they left instructions for what to do about it. ...

If God is good and all-powerful, why is there suffering? This question has tortured thinkers for millennia. Every religion offers some answer. The most common in Western tradition: suffering is punishment for sin, or a test of faith, or a mystery beyond human understanding. We’re meant to trust that a loving God has reasons we can’t comprehend. Many find these answers unsatisfying. The ancient Gnostics offered a radically different response. They didn’t try to explain how a good God could create a world with so much pain. They said: the highest God didn’t create this world at all. ...